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Parallel construction is the repetition of the same initial words in a sequence of phrases or sentences. As a desirable way to word the main points within the overall structure of a speech. But parallel construction also works in introductions as a way to focus listeners on a vital first thought. Note, for example, how Leslie Eason introduced her classroom tribute to golfer Tiger Woods:
You’re at the Western Open where Tiger Woods could be Elvis resurrected. People clap when he pulls out the club, they clap when he hits the ball, they clap no matter where that ball lands. They clap if he smiles. They clap because he is.
Parallel construction also can work in conclusions, when it puts the final imprint on thoughts developed in the speech. Senator Dan Coats of Indiana, speaking at the Stony Brook School after a discussion of the Holocaust, used the following parallel construction:
Hate is not dead. It does not even sleep.
We see it displayed in racism that finds new victims, and reopens old wounds.
We see it when a synagogue is desecrated.
We see it when a homosexual is attacked and beaten.
We saw it when flame touched tinder in Los Angeles and Asian shopkeepers were assaulted in the riot.
We saw it in Florida when a murder was committed in the name of the pro-life cause.3°
Parallel construction suggests strength of conviction, a desirable trait of ethos.
Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in closely connected words. One student speaker who was criticizing the lowering of educational standards paused near the conclusion of her speech, then made the following emphatic statement: “We don’t need the doctrine of dumbing down.” Her repetition of the “d” sound was distinctive, and helped listeners remember her point. It made her and her case seem strong and impressive. Alliteration can be effective in the introductions and conclusions of action-oriented speeches. But be careful not to overdo it—if used too frequently, it can sound contrived. Save it for the moments that really count.
Disease. This metaphor reflects our fears of illness and our ongoing search for cures. The plague was the great symbolic disease of the past; more recently, cancer is the metaphoric illness that dominates public discourse. ‘ The speaker using such a metaphor usually offers a cure. If the disease his progressed too far, radical surgery may be the answer. On the night before I was assassinated, Dr. King warned that “the nation is sick, trouble is in the land, confusion all around.” Only the commitment of his listeners to political, economic, and spiritual reform, he suggested, might cure that illness.
Similarly, metaphors of war and peace reflect our fascination with war
our yearning for peace. The impulse to build, as when we talk about “constructing” speeches or “laying the foundations” for the future, emphasize our ancient instinct as tool-makers to create and control the conditions of our lives. Family metaphors often express the dream of a close, even loving relationship among people through such images as “the family of human ity.” And spatial metaphors often reflect striving upward and forward toward and the desire to avoid falling or retreating into failure.
Culture types and universal images can help bring listeners together aid set the stage for group action. Be careful not to overdo such language. If you strain to use such words, they will seem artificial. But if you use them appropriately with an abundance of supporting materials, they can make your speech more effective.
The work of language is cumulative: That is, to achieve action, we must help listeners see a situation clearly, arouse their feelings about what they see, and bring them together into a group prepared to act. This implies that all the language techniques we have described—from simile to universal images— can contribute to the work of encouraging action. There are, however, certain techniques especially suited to meet this challenge. These resources can help speakers build the kind of ethos that will make them respected advice-givers and leaders in persuasive and ceremonial situations.
In persuasive situations especially, the ethos of the speaker is a central consideration. After all, taking action requires time and trouble and often involves cost and risk. Do we really trust this speaker? Do we respect his judgment? Does she have our good at heart? These questions rise as we hesitate on the threshold of action.
Special techniques that help build the ethos of the speaker and stir listeners to act include alliteration, parallel construction, inversion, and antithesis.
You can create a sense of togetherness by using inclusive pronouns, applying identity words, or evoking universal images.
Inclusive Pronouns. Successful speakers rarely refer to my feelings, my plans, or my cause, but rather our feelings, our plans, our cause. Similarly, they do not say that I will do something or you will do something, but that we will do it together. These inclusive pronouns help unite speakers and listeners. Their importance can be shown best by a negative example. When Ross Perot addressed an NAACP convention during the 1992 presidential campaign, he repeatedly referred to his African American audience as “you people.” These words highlighted separation and alienated many listeners.
Speakers and listeners must be careful in using and responding to the language of feeling. Such techniques can backfire if listeners believe you are trying to exploit their emotions. We should be equally careful, however, of euphemisms, words that numb our feelings by hiding rather than revealing reality. About a half century ago, the British writer George Orwell warned of a developing language of bureaucracy that can deaden rather than awaken feelings. Sadly, this danger has materialized in our time. The Minnesota Board of Education voted to consider requiring all students to do “volunteer work” as a prerequisite to high school graduation.
The medical establishment sometimes describes malpractice as a “therapeutic misadventure” and death as a “terminal episode.”Government planners may gloss over destructive or costly policy blunders by admitting, “Mistakes were made.”In such cases “mistakes” may vastly understate the blunder, and the passive construction, “were made,” allows the speaker to avoid taking responsibility or assigning blame. Similarly, “friendly fire” means killing your own troops by mistake, and “collateral damage” means bombs hitting civilian targets such as hospitals and schools. As Orwell noted, such language “falls upon the facts like soft snow, blurring the outlines and covering up all the details.” Your ethical goal must be to avoid extremes of language that arouse or block feeling without justification.
A final technique that helps awaken feelings, especially when the subject is abstract, is personification. Personification involves treating inanimate subjects, such as ideas or institutions, as though they had human form or feeling. In the late spring of 1989, Chinese students demonstrating for freedom marched in Tiananmen Square carrying a statue they called the “Goddess of Liberty.” They were borrowing a personification that has long been used in the Western world: the representation of liberty as a woman. When those students then had to confront tanks, and their oppressors destroyed the symbol of liberty, it was easy for many, living thousands of miles away in another culture, to feel angry and to identify with their cause. Personification makes it easier to arouse feelings about people and values that might otherwise seem distant.
Using Presentation Aids. Practice using the presentation aid until it seems a natural part of your presentation. Always talk to your audience and not to your presentation aid, and keep the aid out of sight when it is not in use. As you consider the use of presentation aids, be sensitive to their potential ethical impact. Be certain that your presentation aid represents its subject without distortion.
